Akukho nani lokukhokelwa kwikhokelo elikhuselekileyo. Ukunyangwa kwesifo esingapheliyo kunokukhokelela kwiluhlu olude lwezifo, kubandakanya i-anorexia, i- anemia , intshukumo kunye neempawu zesisu. Ukutsalathisa inkohlakalo kubaluleke kakhulu ekukhuleni kwengqondo, kwaye kubantwana kunokubangela ukukhawuleza kokukhula, ukulibaziseka kokuphuhliswa, nokuphuza kwengqondo.
Ukongezelela kumlinganiselo wabantu, ukukhutshwa okungahambiyo nako kunempembelelo enkulu kwezoqoqosho.
Kuqikelelwa ukuba iindleko zokubhengeza iindleko zamaMerika malunga ne-$ 50 billion ngonyaka. Ukuboniswa kokukhokela kuthintela kwaye ukungenelela kuyindleko. Kulo lonke idola elichithwe ekunciphiseni ukunyuka kokukhokelela kwindlu, kulinganiselwa ukuba ukubuyela kuluntu kuphakathi kwe-$ 17 ne-$ 220.
Uphando lubonisa ukuba imiphumo yokukhokela ebusweni bokuqala isenokungena kwimpilo kamva. Uninzi uphando lugxile ekubeni ukhokelo luhambelana njani nolwazi olubi; Nangona kunjalo, sifunda ngokubanzi malunga nendlela ukhokelo olubophelelwe ngayo ukuqhuba ukuphazamiseka nokugqwetha. Ngokukodwa, "ulwaphulo-mthetho lobungqina bezopolitiko" lubonisa ukuba ukukhokelela ekukhombiseni ukukhokelela kulwaphulo-mthetho.
Imvelaphi
Ngomnyaka we-1943, i-Byers kunye neNkosi baqala ukukhanyisa ngokubambisana phakathi kokungabikho kwesohlwayo kunye nokuziphatha okunobundlobongela nobudlova. Ngaphambi kwesi sikhathi, kwakucatshangelwa ukuba unyango olufanelekileyo lwe-exposed exposure lwangele kungabikho miphumo emibi yesikhathi eside.
Nangona kunjalo, i-Byers yaxhalabisa ukuba ukuhanjiswa kwezinto kungabangela ukuziphatha kakubi emva kokugqithiswa kwakhe ukuba izigulane ezimbini awayezisebenzisayo ukuhamba-izigulane eziye zabuyiselwa ngokuqinisekileyo-zihlasele ootitshala bazo esikolweni kwaye zithatha inxaxheba kwezinye izinto ezigwenxa.
Ekuqhubekeni koviwo, i-Byers kunye neNkosi bafumanisa ukuba i-19 ye-20 "ifunyenwe" abantwana babonisa iingxaki eziphathekayo zokuziphatha nezengqondo esikolweni.
Nangona i-Byers kunye neNkosi bebambelele ekunxibelelaneni phakathi kokukhokela nokuziphatha kakubi kwangaphambili, bekungekho kuma-1980 apho iinqweno zenzululwazi zaqala ukuhlolisisa ukuba indlela ehamba phambili ngayo inokudlala indima ekusebenzeni kakubi, enobudlova okanye ukuziphatha kakubi.
Uphando
Makhe sijonge iiphononongo ezimbalwa ezixhasa uxhulumaniso phakathi kobugebengu kunye namanqanaba okhokelo. Enye intambo eqhelekileyo eqhuba malunga nazo zonke iifundo ezivavanya ulwalamano kukuba ezi zifundo zibuyiselwa kwimvelo. Ngamanye amagama, bajonga kwixesha elidlulileyo ukucacisa ubudlelwane endaweni yexesha elizayo (oko kukuthi, iilingo ezilawulwa ngandlela-thile). Oku kwahlula kwenza ingqiqo ngokupheleleyo kuba kungabikho mthethweni ukuveza abachaphazelekayo baphando ukuba baholele. Nangona kunjalo, ngenxa yokuba ezi zifundo zibuyele phambili, kunzima ukuseka ubuhlobo bokwenene.
Nangona kunjalo, umzimba okhulayo wophando usebenzisa i-data emele abantu, imizi, amabala, amazwe, kunye namazwe achaza indlela ukhokelo oluhlanganiswe ngayo nolwaphulo-mthetho. Ezi ziphumo ziye zachazwa kumanqanaba amaninzi, ezikhuthaza ukuveliswa kwazo. Ngenxa yeziphumo ezinjalo, kunzima ukungayitsholi into yokuba ukukhokelela kunokukhokelela ekulwaphulo-mthetho.
Ngophando lwase-Australia lwango-2016, uTylor kunye nabalobi bezobambisene bavavanya amazinga olwaphulo-mthetho ngokuhlaselwa nokukhwabanisa njengomsebenzi wokugxilwa kwimoya emoyeni ukusuka phakathi kweminyaka eyi-15 no-24 ngaphambili. Isizathu sokuba lixesha lalokuba abaphandi babekhangela abantu abenzile ubundlobongela abaye bavezwa ukukhokela ngexesha lophuhliso.
Abaphandi bafumana ubudlelwane obuqili phakathi kokusasazwa kwexesha lokuqala emoyeni kunye namazinga olwaphulo-mthetho oluqhubekayo. Inqaku, i-Taylor kunye noogxa balawulwa ngenxa yezinto ezinokuphazamisana nemibutho, njengenani labantu abagqibe isikolo esiphakamileyo kunye nomvuzo wekhaya. Ulwaphulo-mthetho luchatshazelwa ezininzi izinto -kukho izikolo, ukunakekelwa kwezempilo, ukungondleki kakuhle, kunye nokuchasana nezinye iindawo ezinobungozi bemvelo-kwaye abaphandi bafumene ukuba amanqanaba okukhokela ayeyona nto ebaluleke kakhulu enxulumene nolwaphulo-mthetho.
Njengama-United States, iAustralia ingomnye wabavelisi abakhokelayo behlabathi.
Ukususela kwembali, umkhokelo ufunyenwe kwipende, i-petroli, kunye nokukhishwa kwezinto zokumbiwa kwemayini kunye nokufumba. Phakathi kowe-1932 no-2002-unyaka owawukhokelela ekugqibeleni ususwe kwi-petroli e-Australia-ukukhutshwa kwephesoline ehamba phambili kudlula ii-240,000 tons kunye nokukhutshwa kwezinto ezinobuncitshisi kunye nokuthunga. Inqaku, eUnited States, ukukhokelwa ekugqibeleni kwagqitywa i-petroli ngo-1996.
Ngokutsho kukaTylor kunye nabalobi-mbhali:
Amanyathelo kufuneka athathwe ekunciphiseni okanye ekupheliseni iindawo ezikhoyo zokungcoliseka komhlaba apho kunokwenzeka khona. Imiboniso evela kule mithombo inokukwazi ukwandisa ukuziphatha okuchasene nentlalo kunye nokunyanzelisa iindleko zentlalo ezingadingekile. Le mijelo ibandakanya imisebenzi ekhoyo yeemayini kunye ne-smelting e-Australia nakwezinye iindawo, kwaye iqhuba ipetroli [usetyenziso lwepetroli] kumazwe apho isathengiswa khona: i-Algeria, i-Iraq ne-Yemen. Kula mazwe, abantu abayizigidi ezili-103 bahlala besengozini ekusebenziseni ipetrolo. Kukho nempembelelo yomgaqo-nkqubo kwiindawo eziye zachaphazeleka ngokudlulileyo kwiindawo zokuhlala ezifana nezindlu, izitiya, indawo yokudlala kunye nezikolo. Ezi zitofu zibeka umngcipheko oqhubekayo kuba isigxina-nobomi bendawo yokusingqongileyo sithatha iminyaka engama-700.
Okubaluleke kakhulu, isicatshulwa esilandelayo sibonisa ukuba nangona kukho umkhokelo ukuba ukukhutshwa kwethotho kupheliswe, ukukhokelela kusenamathele kumakhaya, kwiindawo zokudlala, nakwizikolo, apho zihlala khona amakhulu eminyaka.
Ngophando lwama-American lwama-2016, uFeigenbaum no-Muller bafaka umbuzo wophando ngokukhawuleza: Ingaba ukusetyenziswa kwemibhobho yokukhokelela kwimisebenzi yamanzi yoluntu kwakuboshwe ukwanda kwamanqanaba okubulala. Umbuzo wophando ufike ngexesha elifanelekileyo kuba, ngo-2015, amanqanaba aphakamileyo aphezulu afunyanwe kwiinkonzo zamanzi zaseFlint, eMichigan, kwaye oku kwavela kuvela ekukhunjweni kweebhobho zokukhokela kwimisebenzi yamanzi xa isixeko sitshintshisa ukunikezelwa kwamanzi kwindleko yokugcina imali 2014.
Ukuchonga ukuba ngaba iinkokeli eziphambili zidibaniswa nokubulala, abaphandi bavavanya ukuhlaselwa kwabantu phakathi kowe-1921 no-1936 phakathi kwabantu abahlala kwimizi. Ezi ntlawulo ziyasebenza kwisizukulwana sokuqala sabantu abakhuliswe emanzini anikezelwa ngamabhobho okhokelo. Iibhobho zokukhokela zafakwa kwi-masse ngasekupheleni kwekhulu leshumi elinesithoba. Abaphandi bafumanisa ukuba ukusetyenziswa kwemibhobho yenkonzo yokukhokela kwakuxhomekeke ekunyuseni okukhulu kwimiba yokubulala abantu basekuhlaleni. Ngokukodwa, kwakukho ukwanda kweepesenti ezingama-24 ekuhlaleni ukubulala kwabantu kwiidolophu ezazisetyenziselwa iipayipi zokukhokela.
"Ukuba ukukhokelela kwikhokelo kwandisa ubundlobongela," bhala uFeigenbaum noMunler, "ke isisombululo kukutyalomali ekukhutshweni kokuhamba phambili. Nangona ukukhutshwa koothutho akuyi kunciphisa ulwaphulo-mthetho, kuya kususa i-toxin eyingozi kwindawo. Ezinye izicwangciso zokunciphisa ulwaphulo-mthetho zingenakho imiphumo emibi efanayo. "
Ngovavanyo lwango-2017 ukuhlola abantwana abangama-120 000 abazalwa phakathi kuka-1990 no-2004 e-Rhode Island, i-Aizer no-Currie bahlola ukudibanisa phakathi kwamanqanaba okuhamba esikolweni kwaye emva koko ukugxininiswa kwesikolo kunye nokugcinwa kwabantwana. Ngokwabaphandi, "Ukunyuka kweyunithi enye kwikholeji kwandisa amathuba okumiswa esikolweni ngamaphesenti angama-6 ukuya ku-9.3 kunye nokunokwenzeka ukuvalelwa ngamaphesenti angama-27-74, nangona oko kusebenza kuphela kubafana."
Abaphandi bajonga abantwana abahlala kufuphi neendlela ezixakekileyo kwaye bazalwa ekuqaleni kwawo-1990. Umhlaba kufuphi neendlela ezixakekileyo zonakaliswe ngephambili yesibini ekusetyenzisweni kwephesoline eholelekileyo kwiminyaka emashumi, kwaye ezi ziinkwenkwezi zinamazinga aphezulu asekhompyutheni. Abaphandi bafanisa aba bantwana kunye nabantwana abahlala kwezinye iindlela kunye nezingane ezihlala kwiindlela ezifanayo kodwa kamva emva kokuba amazinga okusingqongileyo aqhutywe.
Ngokusekelwe kwiziphumo zabo, i-Aizer kunye neCrrie ibonisa ukuba ukutshintsha okuvela ekuqhutyweni kwipetroli engaxilwanga kubambe indima enkulu ekunciphiseni ubundlobongela obubonakala kuma-1990 nakwa-2000.
Ekugqibeleni, kwisifundo se-2004, uStretesky noLynch bahlolisisa ubudlelwane phakathi kwamanqanaba okhokelo emoyeni nasebugebengu kwiingingqi ezingama-2772 zase-US. Emva kokulawulwa kwezinto ezininzi eziphazamisayo, abaphandi bafumanisa ukuba amazinga okukhokela asebenza ngokuthe ngqo kumgangatho wecandelo lolwaphulo-mthetho. Okubaluleke kakhulu, abaphandi baqaphele ukuba amaninzi amaninzi aphantsi kobutyebi, okanye ahluphekileyo, afumana ubugebengu obuninzi njengesiphumo sokubakhokela.
"Ukuba le ngcamango ichanekile," bhala uStretesky noLynch, "ukuqinisa ukuhlolwa kwenkqubo, ukukhusela, kunye nenzonyango yonyango kufuneka inenzuzo enkulu kunazo zonke kwiinqununu ezininzi."
Ngaphezu koko, ngokutsho kwabaphandi:
Ukubonakaliswa kokukhokela kukho kokubili iklasi kunye nama-correlates obuhlanga osebenza kwinqanaba lezenhlalakahle. Umgangatho ophantsi kunye noluntu oluncinci luninzi kunamanye amaqela angeniso okanye amabala ukuba abe namathuba amaninzi okubakho ukuhamba. Nangona uhlanga kunye neklasini edibanisa iipatheni zokungena kwezona zinto azikho ngokwabo ngokwaneleyo ukuchazela umahluko kumgangatho wolwaphulo-mthetho ofunyenwe kuwo wonke amaqela kunye neeklasi, ezi ndlela zichazwe zihambelana nokufunyaniswa kwezikhalazo kwaye zingachaza ngokucacileyo le ntlukwano. Uviwo oluqhubekayo lo mbandela lufunekayo ukuze kucaciswe lo lwalamano.
Indlela
Asazi kakuhle indlela ukukhokelela kwikhokelo ekunokuthi kulungelelanise umsebenzi wobugebengu. Nangona kunjalo, abaphandi banengcamango yabo.
Okokuqala, ukukhokelela kwikhokelo kunokukhokelela ekunciphiseni ukulawulwa kwempembelelo kunye nefuthe lobugwenxa. Abantu abanomdla kunye nabanobudlova bangakwazi ukuqhubeka nokwenza ubugebengu.
Okwesibini, amanqanaba okunyusa okwandayo egazini ngexesha lobuncinci lidibaniswe nokunciphisa umthamo wengqondo ngexesha lomdala. Ezi ziphumo zibonwa kwi-prefrontal kunye ne-anterior cingulate cortices-iingxenye zengqondo ezilawula umsebenzi olawulayo, ukuvakalelwa, kunye nokwenza izigqibo. Ezi mpawu kwisakhiwo sobuchopho kunye nomsebenzi wengqondo zingayibamba ngandlela-thile kwaye idlale indima kwenzo yolwaphulo lwasemva.
Okwesithathu, i-"neurotoxicity hypothesis" iimeko ezikhokelela ekubambiseni iphazamise i-neurotransmitter kunye nama-hormone ngendlela eyaba neempembelelo ezinobundlobongela nobudlova.
Kwinqaku lokugqibela, kufundwa ngakumbi kufundwa ngaphambi kokuvakalisa iinjongo eziyinyani zobugebengu. Nangona kunjalo, i-sociologists, i-criminologists, kunye nabacebisi bangasebenzisa ezi zifundo ukuqhubela phambili ukuqonda kwabo ubudlelwane phakathi kolwaphulo-mthetho kunye nokhokelo.
> Imithombo:
> Feigenbaum, JJ, Muller, C. Ukuboniswa kweNkokeli kunye noLwaphulo-mthetho oluPhathelene nokuShatshazwa koLwaphulo oluPhambili kwi-Twenty.
> Ikhulu leminyaka. Uphando lweMbali yezoQoqosho. 2016; 62: 51-86.
> Iimpawu eziMandla. Ku: Trevor AJ, Katzung BG, iKruidering-Hall M. eds. I-Katzung & Trevor's Pharmacology: UkuHlola nokuBukeza iBhodi, 11e eNew York, NY.
> Marcus, DK, Fulton, JJ, Clarke, EJ. Ukukhokela kunye nokuPhatha iingxaki: I-Meta-Analysis. Umbhalo we-Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology. 2010; 39: 234-241.
> Stretesky, PB, Lynch, MJ. Ubudlelwane phakathi koNkokeli noLwaphulo-mthetho. Umbhalo wezeMpilo kunye noLuntu. 2004; 45: 214-229.
> Taylor, MP, kunye al. Ubudlelwane phakathi kwe-Atmopheric Leader emissions kunye noLwaphulo-mthetho olusisigxina: Isifundo soBume. LeMpilo yeNdalo. 2016; 15:23.